Plurality within: Understanding the pluriverse of smallholders’ relationships with nature on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Addressing the interconnected global social-ecological challenges requires profound transformations in institutions, values, and worldviews and should be centred on diverse perspectives on conservation and the relationship between people and nature. Existing claims that conservation has partially failed because it mainly focuses on a narrow set of nature's contributions to people (NCP), values of nature, emotional connections with nature, and knowledge systems. Despite an increasing body of literature on human-nature relationships, the internal heterogeneity of relationships is understudied. Overlooking internal heterogeneity in human-nature relationships may result in vague, over generalizations about how people relate with nature. More diverse frameworks are intended for assessing human-nature relationships, including those introduced by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). This dissertation aims to enhance our understanding of human-nature relationships by investigating the diverse relationships smallholders have with nature on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, so as to inform inclusive conservation policies and practices. This dissertation consists of four chapters. Chapter I frames this dissertation by outlining the contribution of the following Chapters (II-IV) on understanding internal heterogeneity. Chapter II explores the NCP preference, the perception of the NCP supply trend over the last decade, and its expression of values of nature. This study found that smallholders primarily preferred material and regulating NCP: food, feed, and regulation of freshwater quality, whose supply is perceived as decreasing, i.e., "critical" NCP. Additionally, smallholders expressed the highest share of agreement on value statements representing intrinsic values (97.1%), relational values (94.8%), and instrumental values (94.1%). Moreover, NCP preferences and nature's values were explained by altitudinal and longitudinal gradients, the place of birth of respondents and their parents, and engagement in conservation activities. Values of nature were also influenced by age, education, and membership in any association. In Chapter III, this study applied the photovoice method to understand how smallholder farmers in Kilimanjaro benefit from, value, and emotionally connect with nature. This study found three types of associations between NCP, values of nature, and emotions, which are related to the geographical location of smallholders. In Chapter IV, the study focused on homegarden (i.e., an agroforestry system) to explore the motivation behind the application of Indigenous and Local Knowledge (ILK) by smallholders. I found that smallholders fit into three distinct clusters based on ILK applications. I also found that smallholders expressed various motivations beyond livelihood support, including an inherent moral responsibility in applying ILK for homegarden management. The findings of this dissertation highlight that, first, diverse approaches to understanding human-nature relationships should consider factors beyond the socio-demographic. Second, the application of framework and methodological approaches influences the outcomes and evidence on human-nature relationship. Third, there is a need to recognize the heterogeneity within social actor groups and the plural approaches applied. These findings have implications for conservation policy and practice, particularly through consideration of context-specific NCP preferences, the nurturing of value pluralism, and braiding of knowledge systems for inclusive conservation, thereby enhancing the quality of life for people.