Soundscape preferences at Mount Kilimanjaro reveal differing perceptions of non-material nature's contributions between residents and tourists

Soundscapes provide a powerful means for understanding how the acoustic dimension of biodiversity contributes to non-material Nature's Contributions to People (NCP), including therapeutic and aesthetic experiences. Despite growing interest in soundscape ecology and human–nature interactions, limited research has examined how specific acoustic characteristics—particularly those quantified through acoustic indices—are associated with the perception of non-material NCP, and whether these associations vary across social groups. Using soundscapes from seven diverse habitats at both dawn and dusk in Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), we aimed to investigate which soundscapes residents and tourists preferred and which context-specific non-material NCP they associated with their preferences. We applied generalized linear mixed models to identify acoustic indices associated with non-material NCP selection. We found that dawn soundscapes were generally preferred, likely due to the prominence of bird vocalizations and greater acoustic diversity compared to louder, insect-dominated dusk soundscapes. However, these preferred soundscapes originated from different habitats: residents favored soundscapes of familiar, human-shaped habitats such as homegardens, whereas tourists preferred soundscapes with minimal human-generated sounds, particularly sub-alpine habitats. Further, we found distinct associations of soundscape preferences with non-material NCP, such as cultural heritage for residents and restorative experiences for tourists, reflecting distinct ways of acoustically experiencing nature. Six acoustic indices were significantly associated with seven of the eleven non-material NCP assessed, highlighting their potential as indicators for capturing soundscape attributes relevant to culturally and experientially meaningful environments. Overall, our study advances soundscape-based approaches to assess non-material NCP and offers insights relevant to inclusive conservation and landscape management.